Role of Medicinal Plants for Health

Role of Medicinal Plants for Health General The use of natural products with therapeutic properties is as ancient as human civilization. For a very long time, mineral, plant and animal products were the main sources of drugs [1].The use of complementary medicine to alleviate and improve health conditions is increasing in developed countries [2]. New medicinal plants from different parts of the world are being investigated with this purpose in mind [3]. Although the utilization of botanicals has increased in the western world, there is a lack of information about mechanisms of action and potential differences among species within the same genus [4]. Now-a-days, several plants have been identified for their anticancer and anti-inflammatory compounds. Scientific experiments on the anticancer properties of plants and their components have been detected. Herbal medicines have been the basis of treatment and cure for various diseases and physiological conditions in traditional methods practiced such as ayurveda, unani and siddha. However no systematic studies were conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of the formulations from the plant were undertaken. Also no attempts were made to isolate and identify the active principles involved in these effects [5]. As an evolutionary response plants were obliged to produce and store a wide range of organic molecules. These substances are usually termed as secondary metabolites (SM). Some of these compounds are involved in the survival of the plants as a defense mechanism against natural enemies. Many SM could actively interact with targets in the human body inducing a bioactivity of interest [6]. The bioactive compounds of medicinal plants are used as anti-diabetic, chemotherapeutic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic agents where no satisfactory cure is present in modern medicines. The use of plants for medicinal purposes dates back to antiquity because they contain components of therapeutic value [7]. Medicinal plants are cheaper and more accessible to most of the population in the world. The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternative form of health care and the development of microbial resistance to the available antibiotics has led researchers to investigate various therapeutic uses of medicinal plants [8]. Therefore, the quest for plants with medicinal properties continues to receive attention as scientists are in need of plants, particularly of ethno botanical significance for a complete range of biological activities, which ranges from antibiotic to anti-cancerous [9]. Bangladesh features a sub-tropical climate and low-lying landmass largely adjacent to extensive river deltas. The country comprises very fertile soils and is home to some rare ecosystems such as the Sundarbans mangrove forests. Given the fertile plains and high population density, the indigenous vegetation has mostly given way to cropland and extensive cultivation. Today, almost 60% of the landmass is used for farming, which is a global maximum value. However, originally large parts of Bangladesh featured tropical forests and marshy jungle with highly bio-diverse flora being also an excellent source for medicinal plants. The Bangladeshi traditional medicine is a unique conglomerate of different ethnomedical influences. Due to the geographic location and sociocultural characteristics of the country, it involves traditionally rooted elements influenced by local indigenous people and close-by Indian Ayurveda and Unani medicine [10, 11]. Given its inexpensive, easily accessible and well-established health services, the use of traditional medicine is an integral part of public health services in Bangladesh with its providers being deeply embedded within the local community [12-14]. Recent data suggest that the utilization of traditional medicine health services in Bangladesh is widespread [15] and plays a crucial role in providing health care for poor people, people in rural areas and for tribal people [16]. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of medicinal plants The anti-oxidative activity has been confirmed contributing kinds of cancer and inflammatory preventions for its multiple functional roles. The production of oxidants is a typical event associated with aerobic metabolism. When oxygen is supplied in excess or its reduction is insufficient, reactive oxygen species or free radicals such as superoxide anions, hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide are generated [17]. Accumulation of the free radicals in body organs or tissues can cause oxidative damage to biomolecules and membranes of cell, eventually leading to many chronic diseases, such as inflammatory, cancer, diabetes, aging, cardiac dysfunction and other degenerative diseases [18]. In the last 50 years, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of extracts from medicinal or food plants have been extensively investigated. Many pharmacological studies have shown that extracts of some antioxidant plant possess anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-muta genic and anti-viral activities to a greater or lesser extent. Researchers reported that intake of fruits, vegetables and other foods having high antioxidant activity has been associated with reduced risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and other diseases [17]. Trouillas et al. investigated the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative properties of sixteen French herbal tea and found some herbs exhibited high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activities [19]. Antioxidant activities in twenty traditional anti-inflammatory herbs extracts were investigated. The results suggested that the anti-inflammatory activities of these extracts could be explained, at least in part, by their antioxidant properties [20]. Free radicals liberated from phagocyte cells are important in inflammatory processes, because they are implicated in the activation of nuclear factor kB, which induces the transcription of inflammatory cytokines and cyclooxygenase-2 [21 ]. Free radicals and oxidative stress Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a term that encompasses all highly reactive, oxygen containing molecules, including free radicals. Types of ROS include the hydroxyl radical, the superoxide anion radical, hydrogen peroxide, singlet oxygen, nitric oxide radical, hypochlorite radical, and various lipid peroxides. All are capable of reacting with membrane lipids, nucleic acids, proteins and enzymes, and other small molecules, resulting in cellular damage. ROS are generated by a number of pathways. Most of the oxidants produced by cells occur as: A consequence of normal aerobic metabolism: approximately 90% of the oxygen utilized by the cell is consumed by the mitochondrial electron transport system. Oxidative burst from phagocytes (white blood cells) as part of the mechanism by which bacteria and viruses are killed, and by which foreign proteins (antigens) are denatured. Xenobiotic metabolism, i.e., detoxification of toxic substances. Consequently, things like vigorous exercise, which accelerates cellular metabolism; chronic inflammation, infections, and other illnesses; exposure to allergens and the presence of leaky gut syndrome; and exposure to drugs or toxins such as cigarette smoke, pollution, pesticides, and insecticides may all contribute to an increase in the bodys oxidant load [22]. Most reactive oxygen species are generated as by-products during mitochondrial electron transport. In addition ROS are formed as necessary intermediates of metal catalyzed oxidation reactions. Atomic oxygen has two unpaired electrons in separate orbits in its outer electron shell. This electron structure makes oxygen susceptible to radical formation. The sequential reduction of oxygen through the addition of electrons leads to the formation of a number of ROS including: superoxide; hydrogen peroxide; hydroxyl radical; hydroxyl ion; and nitric oxide. Free radicals and other ROS are derived either from normal essential metabolic processes in the human body or from external sources such as exposure to X-rays, ozone, cigarette smoking, air pollutants, and industrial chemicals. Free radical formation occurs continuously in the cells as a consequence of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. Enzymatic reactions, which serve as source of free radicals, include those involved in the respiratory chain, in phagocytosis, in prostaglandin synthesis, and in the cytochrome P-450 system. Free radicals can also be formed in non-enzymatic reactions of oxygen with organic compounds as well as those initiated by ionizing reactions. Some internally generated sources of free radicals are Mitochondria, Xanthine oxidase, Peroxisomes, Inflammation, Phagocytosis, Arachidonate pathways, Exercise, Ischemia/reperfusion injury etc. Some externally generated sources of free radicals are- Cigarette smoke, Environmental pollutants, Radiation, Certain drugs, pesticides, Industrial solvents, Ozone etc. Normally, cells defend themselves against ROS damage with enzymes such as alpha-1-microglobulin, superoxide dismutases, catalases, lactoperoxidases, glutathione peroxidases and peroxiredoxins. Small molecule antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), tocopherol (vitamin E), uric acid, and glutathione also play important roles as cellular antioxidants. In a similar manner, polyphenol antioxidants assist in preventing ROS damage by scavenging free radicals. In contrast, the antioxidant ability of the extracellular space is less e.g., the most important plasma antioxidant in humans is uric acid. Effects of ROS on cell metabolism are well documented in a variety of species. These include not only roles in apoptosis (programmed cell death) but also positive effects such as the induction of host defense genes and mobilization of ion transport systems. This implicates them in control of cellular function. In particular, platelets involved in wound repair and blood homeostasis release ROS to recruit additional platelets to sites of injury. These also provide a link to the adaptive immune system via the recruitment of leukocytes. Reactive oxygen species are implicated in cellular activity to a variety of inflammatory responses including cardiovascular disease. They may also be involved in hearing impairment via cochlear damage induced by elevated sound levels, in ototoxicity of drugs such as cisplatin, and in congenital deafness in both animals and humans. ROS are also implicated in mediation of apoptosis or programmed cell death and ischemic injury. Specific examples include stroke and heart attack. All the biological molecules present in our body are at risk of being attacked by free radicals. Such damaged molecules can impair cell functions and even lead to cell death eventually resulting in diseased states. In recent years it has become apparent that the oxidation of lipids, or lipid peroxidation, is a crucial step in the pathogenesis of several disease states in adult and infant patients. Lipid peroxidation is a process generated naturally in small amounts in the body, mainly by the effect of several reactive oxygen species (hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide etc.). It can also be generated by the action of several phagocytes. These reactive oxygen species readily attack the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the fatty acid membrane, initiating a self-propagating chain reaction. The destruction of membrane lipids and the end-products of such lipid peroxidation reactions are especially dangerous for the viability of cells, even tissues [23-25]. Membrane lipids present in subcellular organelles are highly susceptible to free radical damage. Lipids when reacted with free radicals can undergo the highly damaging chain reaction of lipid peroxidation (LP) leading to both direct and indirect effects. During LP a large number of toxic byproducts are also formed that can have effects at a site away from the area of generation, behaving as second messengers. The damage caused by LP is highly detrimental to the functioning of the cell [26]. Lipid peroxidation is a free radical mediated process. Initiation of a peroxidative sequence is due to the attack by any species, which can abstract a hydrogen atom from a methylene group (CH2), leaving behind an unpaired electron on the carbon atom (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢CH). The resultant carbon radical is stabilized by molecular rearrangement to produce a conjugated diene, which then can react with an oxygen molecule to give a lipid peroxyl radical (LOOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢). These radicals can further abstract hydrogen atoms from other lipid molecules to form lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) and at the same time propagate LP further. The process of LP, gives rise to many products of toxicological interest like malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and various 2-alkenals. Isoprostanes are unique products of lipid peroxidation of arachidonic acid and recently tests such as mass spectrometry and ELISA-assay kits are available to detect isoprostanes [27]. Oxidation of proteins by ROS/RNS can generate a range of stable as well as reactive products such as protein hydroperoxides that can generate additional radicals particularly upon interaction with transition metal ions. Although most oxidized proteins that are functionally inactive are rapidly removed, some can gradually accumulate with time and thereby contribute to the damage associated with ageing as well as various diseases. Lipofuscin, an aggregate of peroxidized lipids and proteins accumulates in lysosomes of aged cells and brain cells of patients with Alzheimers disease [28]. Inflammation Inflammation is one of the body unique mechanisms that help body to protect itself against infection, burn, toxic chemicals, allergens or other noxious stimuli [29]. It is a body defense reaction in order to eliminate or limit the spread of injurious agent [30]. The process is created by immune cells invading the tissue like an army in full battle mode [31]. There are various components of inflammatory reaction that can contribute to the associated symptoms and tissue injury [30]. During inflammation, innate cells and molecules are usually stimulated to isolate, destroy infectious agents and repair tissue, or sometimes the adaptive immune system is also stimulated [32]. Consequently, the mechanism works in a cascade, where the inflammation is often triggered by circulating immune complexes that enter tissues [31]. Principally, inflammation is manifested by pain, swelling, redness band loss of function in the afflicted tissue [31, 33]. Saladin (2007) categorized process of inflammation into three major processes; mobilization of the bodys defenses, containment and destruction of pathogens, and tissue clean up and repair [34]. While Mahat and Patil (2007) classified the process into three phases; the first phase is caused by an increase in vascular permeability, the second one by infiltration of leukocytes and the third one by granuloma formation [30]. The inflammatory response is initiated by circulating proteins and blood cells when they contact invaders in the tissue. Microbial invaders that lodge in body tissue and begin to proliferated triggered inflammatory response [33]. Bacterial products interact with plasma factors and cells to produce agents that attract neutrophils to the infected area (chemotaxis). The chemotactic agents, which are part of a large family of chemokines, include a component of the complement system (C5a), histamine, kinins, leukotrienes, and polypeptides from lymphocytes, mast cells, and basophils [35]. The neutrophils also produce oxidants and release granular constituents comprising of lytic enzymes performing important role in inflammatory injury [36]. The innate immune system contributes to inflammation by activating the alternative and lechitin-binding complement pathways, attracting and activating phagocytic cells that secrete cytokines and chemokines, activating NK cells, altering vas. The result would firstly be increased in blood flow to the affected tissue which accelerates the delivery of immune system element to the site [33]. The vasodilation would later cause enlarged capillaries and lead to redness (erythema) as well as increase in temperature, which for an influx of fluid and cells, contributing to swelling [32]. Saladin (2007) explained that the increased in blood flow also washes toxin and metabolic wastes from the tissue rapidly. In addition, vasoactive chemicals cause endothelial cells of the blood capillaries to separate a little, widening the intracellular cleft between them and increasing capillary permeability that ease the movement of fluid, leukocytes, and plasma proteins from the bloodstream into the surrounding tissue [34]. In the area of injury, many of the neutrophils enter the tissues. As neutrophils encounter bacteria, they avidly phagocytize, digest and destroy them. Neutrophils also recruit macrophages and additional neutrophils by secreting cytokines [33]. Activated macrophages and T cells in the inflamed tissue also secrete cytokines called colony stimulation factors, which promotes the production of more leukocytes by the red bone marrow. Within a few hours of inflammation, neutrophilia (the rise in the neutrophil count in blood) would occur [37]. Then, the neutrophils are attracted to the endothelial surface by selectins, and they roll along it. They bind firmly to neutrophil adhesion molecules of the integrin family. They next insinuate themselves through the walls of the capillaries between endothelial cells by a process called diapedesis [35]. Leukocytes adhere loosely to the selectins and slowly tumble along the endothelium, sometimes coating it so thick that they obstruct blood flow. This adherence to the vessel wall is called margination [38]. Later, the fibrinogens are filtered into the tissue fluid clots in area adjacent to the injury, forming a sticky mesh that sequesters bacteria and other microbes [34]. This is caused by release of chemicals from tissues and migrating cells. Most strongly implicated are the prostaglandins (PGs), leukotrienes (LTs), histamine, bradykinin, platelet- activating factor (PAF) and interleukin-1 [39]. Prostaglandin is implicated in inducing the production of various chemo-attractants and pro-inflammatory cytokines [36]. Gislason (2009) mentioned that macrophages and neutrophils are responsible to secrete a number of mediators which is responsible not just for initiation, but also for progression and persistence of acute or chronic state of inflammation [31]. Finally, monocytes acts as the major agent in tissue clean up and repair. It enters the blood from the bone marrow and circulated for about 72 hours. Then, they enter the tissues and become tissue macrophage. The macrophage becomes activated by lympokines from T lymphocytes [35]. The activated macrophage migrate in respond to chemotactic stimuli and later engulf and destroy bacteria, damaged host cells, as well as dead and dying neutrophils. Besides that, it also acts as antigen presenting cells and activating specific immune response [34]. Edema may also contribute to the tissue clean up. Nitric oxide is responsible for vasodilatation, increase in vascular permeability and edema formation at the site of inflammation [36]. The swelling compresses veins and reduce venous drainage, while it forces open the valve of lympathic capillaries and promote lympathic drainage. The lymphatics can collect and remove bacteria, dead cells, proteins and tissue debris better than blood capillary can. An accumulation of dead cells of neutrophils with other debris tissue and fluid will form pus, a yellowish fluid. It may accumulate in the tissue cavity and known as abcess [32]. Pus is usually absorbed, but sometimes it may be released by its rupture. Blood platelets and the endothelial cells in an area of injury secrete platelet derived growth factor, an agent that stimulates fibroblast to multiply and synthesize collagen. Hyperemia at the same time delivers the oxygen, amino acids and other necessities of protein synthesis, while the hea t of inflamed tissue increases metabolic rate and speed of mitosis and tissue repair. The fibrin clot in inflamed tissues may provide a scaffold for tissue reconstruction [34]. In part, inflammation declines simply because the mediators of inflammation have short half-lives, are degraded after their release, and are produced in quick bursts, only as long as the stimulus persists. In addition as inflammation develops, the process also triggers a variety of stop signals that serve to actively terminate the reaction [38]. Anti-inflammatory Activity Anti-inflammatory refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation. Anti-inflammatory drugs make up about half of analgesics, remedying pain by reducing inflammation as opposed to opioids, which affect the central nervous system. Drugs to control inflammation When healing is complete, the inflammatory process usually subsides [32]. However, an uncontrolled and persistent inflammation that sometimes is triggered by harmless agent such pollen or by an auto immune response. It may act as an etiologic factor for many of these chronic illnesses, where it may induce, maintain or aggravate the disease [29]. As mentioned, the inflammation would occur with the presence of antigen. Thus, constant supply of antigen is available from the food or environment may leads to chronic inflammation and causes diseases such as asthma, arthritis and other autoimmune diseases [31]. In such cases, the defense reaction themselves may cause progressive tissue injury. Hence, anti-inflammatory or immunosuppressive drugs may be necessary to modulate the inflammatory process [37]. Anti-inflammatory drugs are designed to targets the inhibition of the release of these mediators to control inflammation [36]. Harvey and Champe (2008) have classified anti-inflammatory drugs into three category; Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors (COX-2 inhibitors) and other analgesics [32]. Aspirin is a prototype of traditional NSAIDs. It works by irreversibly inhibit Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1 and 2) enzymes, which results in decreased formation of prostaglandin precursors [40]. Due to this mechanism of action, aspirin also cause adverse effects such as gastric hemorrhages, hypersensitivity and thrombocytopenia [41]. It is becoming a concern of healthcare providers that patients are developing intolerance from day to day. About fifteen percent of patients show intolerance with aspirin. Therefore, newer NSAIDs with greater anti-inflammatory activities are developed. However, the newer NSAIDs are considerably more expensive than aspirin and some have proved to be more toxic in the other way [32]. The second category is COX-2 inhibitor. The mechanism of action is by selectively inhibiting the activity of COX-2 enzyme that results in decreased of prostaglandin precursors [37]. Unlike aspirin, COX-2 inhibitors have an advantage by showing lower risk of developing gastrointestinal bleeding and have no significant effects on platelets [42]. However, this drug is not recommended for renal impaired patients because it may cause renal insufficiency and increase the risk of hypertension [40]. It also has some possible adverse effects recorded in Malaysian Index of Medical Specialities (MIMS) that it may cause allergic reaction, dizziness, headache, rash, upper respiratory infection and gastrointestinal disturbances such as dyspepsia, abdominal pain and diarrheas [41]. Acetaminophen is categorized under other analgesic because it has little or no anti-inflammatory activity [32]. It inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandin in the central nervous system and peripherally blocks pain impulse generations [40]. They have therapeutic advantages over narcotic analgesics which they do not cause physical dependence or tolerance and does not affect platelet function or increase blood clotting time, but it does have many of side effects similar to aspirin [42]. Rarely, skin rash and allergic reaction may appear as the side effects [41]. There are also drugs from autacoids antagonist such as antihistamines used to prevent progress of inflammation. The term antihistamine, without a modifying adjective, refers to the classic H1 receptor blockers [32]. H1 histamine antagonists drugs are develop effectively to target the receptors to treat hay fever and some skin allergies such as urticaria. H1 receptor blockers act on immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody-sensitizing mast cell [37]. Rheumatoid arthritis is alleviated by drugs, which inhibit the cyclooxygenase enzyme and reduce synthesis of prostanoids, corticosteroids prevent the formation of both prostaglandins and leukotriens by causing the release of lipocortin that leads to inhibition of phospholipase A2 that reduces arachidonic acid release which is able to suppress the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis and asthma [39]. Anti-cytokines therapy involving target on Interleukin-1b (IL-1b) and tumor necrosis factor-ÃŽÂ ± (TNF-ÃŽÂ ±) that stimulate synovial cells to proliferate and synthesize collagenase, leading to degradation of cartilage, stimulation of bone resorption, and inhibition of proteoglycan synthesis is another method that is effective in treating rheumatoid arthritis [32]. Despite the benefits that the drugs hold, it also carries the side effects. As a result, it may lead various unwanted effects such as to gastric lesions, allergy reactions, tolerance and dependence, as well as resistance [40, 43]. Hence, worldwide researchers are still working to produce the ideal medicines of anti-inflammatory with highest efficacy, best potency and lowest or none side effects. Description of the plant investigated Bauhinia acuminata L. is a species of flowering shrub native to tropical southeastern Asia. The exact native range is obscure due to extensive cultivation, but probably from Malaysia, Indonesia (Java, Borneo, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Philippines. It is widely cultivated throughout the tropics as an ornamental plant. It may be found as an escape from cultivation in some areas, and has become naturalized on the Cape York Peninsula, Australia [44]. Common Name Bangla: Shwet Kanchan. Malaysian: Bunga Perak. English: Dwarf White Bauhinia, White Mountain Ebony [45]. Indonesian: Panawar Saribu (Sunda Islands); Kupu-kupu (Java) Thailand: Ka Long, SomSio Burma: Mahahlegabyu India: Kaanchnaara, Kovidaara (Ayurvedic); Kachnaal (Unani); Vellaimandarai (Siddha/Tamil); Kanchan (Assam); Shwetkachnar, Kachnalsafaid (Punjab) Sri Lanka: Sudu Kobalila (Singhalese) Japan: Moku-wan-ju. Taxonomical Hierchy: Kingdom : Plantae Subkingdom : Viridaeplantae Infrakingdom : Streptophyta Division : Tracheophyta Subdivision : Spermatophytina Infradivision : Angiosperms Class : Eudicots Superorder : Rosids Order : Fabales Family : Fabaceae Subfamily : Caesalpiniaceae Genus : Bauhinia Species : B. acuminata Binomial name : Bauhinia acuminata L. Botanical Description: Fig.-1.1: Bauhinia acuminata L. tree. Bauhinia acuminata L. is a member of the Fabaceae family. It is a rapidly growing shrub that can reach up to 3m tall. It rises with several strong, smooth, upright stems with many slender branches; young twigs being pubescent. The stipules are linear-lanceolate measures 1cm long. The leaves are cordate or nearly so are the base, bilobed to about one third of their length with obtuse or acute lobes 9-11 nerve, sparsely pubescent beneath, about 10cm long and broad. The flowers appear at the extremities of the branches 3-4 in a loose bunch with white petals. Thepedicels measure 6-12mm long. The flower buds fusiform, long attenuate at the apex and 5 setaceous dents, measures 3cm long. The calyx-limb laterally splitting, spathaceous; receptacle short. The petals obovate, measure 4cm long and 2cm wide. The stamens 10 all fertile, shorter than the petals; anthers small.The ovary shortly stipitate, sparsely pubescent. The pods are linear-oblong, stipitate, measure 10cm long and 1.5cm wide, d ark brown in colour containing 10 roundish compressed seeds [46, 47]. Traditional uses of Bauhinia acuminata L. The bark and leaves in a decoction helps relieve biliousness [48]. A remedy recommended by the Indian Vaiydas [45]. In Malaysia and Indonesia the plant is used in the treatment of common cold and cough [48]. The root seems to be the part made used of by the Japanese in treating cough and cold. In India the decoction of the leaves and bark is given for allying asthmatic attack. The Indians made used of the bark and leaves in a decoction to treat stones in the bladder, venereal diseases and leprosy [45]. Amongst the Mullu kuruma tribe of Karella the decoction of the bark is used in treating urinary discharge (gonorrhea). They make use of paste of the leaves applied on the throat for throat troubles. It is applied externally to treat skin diseases [49]. The root is boiled in oil and applied to burns and pain [45]. Objective of study To evaluate the free radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activity of Bauhinia acuminata L. bark extracts in rats. Significance of study Bauhinia acuminata L. is one of the

How Reliable Are Ofsted Reports as a Measure of School Effectiveness? Essay

This assignment examines the reliability of Ofsted judgements that were made on School X in 2009 and 2012. It will discuss how the two inspections were carried out-were they carried out in the same way? Were they felt to be fair? School X is a large 3-11 mixed school with 35.1 % of pupils who are eligible for free school meals FSM. The pupils are mainly Pakistani, Indian and Bangladeshi. The proportion of special educational needs and disabled pupils is similar to other national schools. The attainment and progress in both English and mathematics meet the current government standards. (Ofsted report 2012). How Ofsted reach an overall judgment about school effectiveness? The inspectors reach the overall judgments by considering the four key areas: achievement of pupils, the quality of teaching, behavior and safety, leadership and management. Inspectors also consider the quality of the curriculum and how the spiritual, moral, social and cultural development of pupils at the school. They will also look if the school is meeting the individual needs in particular the needs of special educational needs and disabled pupils. The judgment they make is based on the overall evidence they gather from their observation, parents, pupils, interviews and the raise online, which is â€Å" a secure web-based system that provides schools, local authorities and inspectors with a range of analyses including: Achievement at the end of Key Stages 1 and 2; Progress from Key Stage 1 to 2; Absence and exclusions; and The characteristics (often referred to as ‘context’) of pupils. (Dave Thomson, RM Education, 2011). In addition, their judgments on the quality of teaching are based not only on classroom observations â€Å"snapshots†, but they are also checking pupils’ books, sequences of work, pupils’ academic progress and parents’ perspectives on their children’s progress. Ofsted: A summary of Evidence. Ofsted judgements on teaching through classroom observations face several challenges. First, there is the Hawthorne effect, whereby the pupils or the teacher might change their behaviour because an inspector in the room is a novel experience (Cohen and Manion 1994, Robson 2011). Additionally, Grubb (1999) stated that teachers complain that it is hard for inspectors to evaluate a full lesson from a â€Å"snapshot† as the unobserved part of the lesson may be crucial to interpreting what is happening in the observed part of the lesson. However, the above-mentioned methods that inspectors used to make a judgment on the quality of teaching mush be considered. According to Mr Jonathan Harris, as cited in the report from the Education sub-committee (1999), he was critical of possible changeability of judgements between inspections team where he argued that different inspection teams could make different judgments about the same school in the inspection reports which he stated â€Å"unacceptable†. Thus, there is no evidence which guarantee that Ofsted judgments are reliable. It is not just a matter of reliability as far as the validity of data concerned too. As Gorard (2009) points out, â€Å"if the initial relative error in either the actual or the predicted score is greater than 10%, as it almost certainly would be in reality, the error in the CVA result would be even greater than this, 40 times more than the size of the result itself.†, which makes serious doubts about the validity of the data. On the other hand, Ofsted keep raising expectations and the criteria used by Ofsted which are shown in appendices 1-3 could be one of the causes that the school has a satisfactory in 2009.Figure 1 It is also necessary to consider the fact that Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector raises expectations to ensure a good education for all focusing on the quality of teaching â€Å"the heart of good education†. Thus, a proposal was conducted to improve the education system. (A Good Education for All .2012). Thus, in the new framework it was stated that, â€Å"Schools will be judged on a smaller number of core aspects than before, but we will be examining them in greater depth. The changes will result in more streamlined inspections, with fewer judgments and grades, leading to sharper reports on the quality of education provided by schools and the most important aspects of their performance.† (Ofsted new framework 2012). Ofsted judgments on the school Ofsted judgements on School X’ Figure 1 Figure 1 shows the Ofsted grades for School X in 2006, 2009 and 2012. In each report, the first three judgments of â€Å"overall effectiveness†, â€Å"achievement of pupils† and â€Å"quality of teaching† were given the same grade.The common issue that was raised in all of the reports was about the quality of teaching. For instance, in 2006 they asked the school to ensure the good quality of teaching across the school. In 2009, they said; raise the proportion of good and outstanding teaching. In 2012, they said raise the quality of teaching through appropriate questions that cover different needs of different pupils. First of all, it was the same comment written differently each time and the last one they pointed how. Discussion and description (School’s perspective). Having considered the above-mentioned arguments about Ofsted judgments, it is also important to discuss the validity and reliability of the above-mentioned judgments. An interview was constructed to find the school views towards these judgments. The Deputy Head of School X points out that, children vary in their abilities each year and believed that Ofsted do not take this into account. She argued that when the school went down from outstanding down to satisfactory to good, it was because they had a lot of special needs children ,consequently, they were not able to get up to the standard of the government at that time. Although, the students made progress in Key stage 2 but they did not meet the government standards. (School Data included Appendix 4 & 5). Before considering how the two inspections were carried out, it is important to note that the inspectors in general are subjective people not objective. The deputy head mentioned this particular Ofsted inspector who came in 2009, he walked through the door on the first day and said: â€Å"I am Mr, so and so, if I had come to your school six months ago, I would have given you an unsatisfactory school and put you in special measures†. That clears straightaway that he is not on their side as he had this thought in mind. She also felt that they were making negative judgments not positive judgments about what they are seeing in the school. Indeed, the Deputy Head gave an example of that when the inspector went around the school then said to the Head teacher, â€Å"Where is the White English Board showing the Culture of the White English indigent’s people in Britain?† The Head teacher and the Deputy Head felt that the way the inspection went wasn’t fair. First, they received a call from the department of education the next morning as the notes went to a moderator who looked at the evidence then changed the curriculum from unsatisfactory to satisfactory. Second, within the next two days they received another call from the inspector himself saying that he has changed Leadership and management from satisfactory to good. As (Gibbon and Forster, 1999) point out, Ofsted revealed that there is no issue on who inspect the school and when, but, if two inspectors inspect the same school, the lesson, or the department, and they there was a variation in their judgments. Which inspector do we believe? Then, the Head teacher and the Deputy Head found out in the internet that fifteen schools with the same lead inspector that had the same exact comments in their reports as if they cut and paste the same comment in other reports. â€Å"The National Association of Head Teachers general secretary Russell Hobby said he had heard anecdotal reports of â€Å"cut and paste† reports, adding such a practice was â€Å"not acceptable given that the fate of the school rests on what is written.†BBC News. In contrast, the Deputy Head mentioned that the 2012 inspector was fabulous, open-minded looking for good things, the inspector said, â€Å"This is a good school, you are improving school, I can see your results are going up, they are not quite national, yet, as soon I walked through this door I can feel this is a good school and I want to know what you are doing good? How can you prove this? Where is the information for that? † In this respect, the Deputy Head argued that it depends on the inspector who comes around. However, these remain opinions of people as we cannot treat them as objective fact. Also, we cannot assume that all inspectors are subjective people because people look at things from different angles. For instance, if two inspectors attend the same lesson together and each one has his own believes about teaching, one of them might grade a teacher centered lesson as satisfactory and the other one sees it from a totally different angle. Conclusion. The leaders of this school believe they were judged unfairly and that general evidence on Ofsted points to the risks of unreliable judgements. As Ofsted keep raising the expectation it would be hard for a school to be outstanding as it would be rarely possible to find a school with a big proportion of an outstanding quality teaching. Thus, schools should be flexible and understand that the aim of Ofsted is to improve education for children which is what school is all about. Teaching is the core of school improvement and schools should raise the proportion of good and outstanding teaching. References â€Å"Cut and Paste’ Ofsted Report Claims.† BBC News. BBC, 06 Aug. 2012. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-18353533 Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (1994).Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge. Gibbon, C, T & Forster, N, J, S. (1999). Is Ofsted Helpful? In C. Cullingford (Ed.), An inspector calls (pp. 97-118) Harlow: Longman. Gorard, S. (2010).Serious Doubts about school effectiveness British Educational Research Journal, 36:5,745-766. Grubb, N. (1999). Improvement or control?. In C. Cullingford (Ed.), An inspector calls (pp. 70-96). Harlow: Longman. Ofsted 2006 inspection Report for School X Ofsted 2009 inspection Report for School X Ofsted 2012 inspection Report for School X Ofsted. A Good Education for ALL. Feb. 2012. Retrieved from http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/resources/good-education-for-all Robson, C. (2011). Real World Research. United Kingdom: Wiley THE EDUCATION SUB-COMMITTEE. THE WORK OF OFSTED. Rep. no. 4. UK: Parliamentary, 1999. Retrieved from: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199899/cmselect/cmeduemp/62/6212.htm The Framework for School Inspection from September 2012.† Ofsted. 05 Sept. 2012. Retrieved from http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/resources/framework-for-school-inspection-september-2012-UK Thomson, Dave. RAISE online for Governors of. Rep. UK: National Governor’s

CMR Enterprise Essay

This particular case depicts the history and issues faced by a relatively small company active in the custom architectural millwork industry for the past 25 years. The new owners wanted the newly-acquired company to grow even further. The first few months seems to have been a success – Marcus spent a lot of his time with employees and customers, learning the field since he was, as mentioned in the text, an â€Å"outsider†. However, keeping the company’s integrity and image intact was a priority. However, the problems outlined in the case seems to start – or at least have been worsened – with what will become CMR’s largest account, Blackstone Homes. Problem Identification After reviewing the text in question, three major problems stand out: 1) Customers change requests: When Blackstone Homes sell a house, it does – of course! – come with a pre-finished and installed kitchen, included in the price. However, if the customer wishes, he or she would visit CMR’s showroom and they would build these woodwork according to their new specifications. The added cost will then be charged to the contractor, which will later add it to their bills. This takes time and lead to price increases. This is, in part, what contributed to the clash with Blackstone Homes. 2) IT solution not adapted: InfoCentral, the software implemented by Marcus, does not work out as intended and do not fit the business needs. It is not always updated as required by the employees. According to the text, it may be helpful for the commercial and financial/accounting side, but is lacking several features for its residential counterpart to be really as useful as it can be. 3) Deteriorating business relationship The business relations between the two companies started well and was fulfilling for both part. When the business expended, so did the problems. The root cause seems to be the change requests made by the homeowners. This lead to late delivery, poorly reviewed performance and then the 7% price increase. Future homeowners started considering the prices charged by CMR to be too high. We could therefore expect lower level of sales and revenues in the future. Alternatives generation While we will mostly concentrate our alternatives on the three points mentioned above, we will also include other alternatives, even if they may not be realistic or feasible in the short/medium term. 1) Review customers change requests: We obviously cannot stop change requests and modifications made by the customers. The company and its employees pride themselves by offering flexibility and higher customers’ satisfaction. It would be therefore self-destructive for CMR to put a term to these showrooms. Any person also deserve to have reasonable alternative options when they are buying an object, a home more than anything. However, there is a clear misunderstanding between CMR and Blackstone Homes regarding the fixed allowances for kitchen ($6,000) and the final cost of the installation. In order to solve this issue, it may be a good thing to review the billing part: Instead of having the installation costs â€Å"forwarded† to the contractor, all expenses over $6,000 (parts + labor) should be charged to the homeowners themselves; customers can have access to all options made available by CMR, whilst eliminating cost forwarding and the said related disagreements. 2) Software adaptation It seems clear from the text that the whole issue also come in part from InfoCentral. In order to remediate this issue, we would suggest that all account managers from CMR and employees involved with this software should meet and discuss its performance. What should be changed, what must be kept, or what should be included in order to fit everyone’s needs. However, for any IT solution to bring tangible additional value, it must be easy to use and should not impose additional work. It is supposed to simplify the work, not making it more complicated. 3) The right people on the right place Again, according to the text, there was a clear misunderstanding between both parties; it was even referred as a â€Å"shouting contest†, which is far from being a normal and healthy business relationship. The Key Account Managers (from both sides) could not agree on contract terms and conditions. It could therefore be a good thing to change points of contact and see if the situation can be resolved; a stronger relation, transparency, honesty and â€Å"business awareness† between the two companies might also help straighten things out. 4) Additional ideas The solution to increase profit may not be by simply increasing selling price. We would suggest CMR to run an audit on their Supply Chain, Logistics and Selling, General & Administrative Expenses to see if cost reductions are possible. Could modern machinery help cut their production costs? Could they outsource some of their non-core business or reduce raw material costs by creating a joint-venture with a competitor? Chasing down inefficiencies in the production line can be even more effective than a price increase. Recommendations Using the previous points, we would suggest the three following recommendations: 1) Change the billing process: If possible, all additional costs over $6,000 should be charged to the homeowner directly. In order to make this easier for the customers, offering various financing options may be a good idea. 2) Adapt InfoCentral: Review, correct and revamp the software in order to meet real business needs. May be a good thing to check what competitors are using. 3) Organize recurrent meetings: The situation with Blackstone did not get bad in one day. It may be a good idea to set up weekly or monthly operational reviews; meetings lasting no longer than 30 minutes, where all potential issues can be discussed among stakeholders and managers. The idea is not to let such situation worsen and take the correct actions as soon as possible.

Plastco Packaging Compensation Case - 3884 Words

st Plastco Packaging Case Prepared by: Richard Marx Spring 201_ Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Introduction and Synopsis 3 Background Information/ Current Operating Environment 4 Primary Problems 7 Secondary Problems 9 Alternatives/ Solutions 13 Recommendations 18 Implementation Plan 20 Appendix A - Plastco Departmental Chart 23 Endnotes 24 Bibliography 25 Case Study Analysis Form 26 Introduction and Synopsis This report introduces us to the Plastco Packaging Company, its current operating environment, and the many problems it faces. The report proceeds to identify solutions, and weighs their costs and†¦show more content†¦Supervisors are quite controlling of their subordinates actions. vi. The reward system (compensation system) at Plastco is an extrinsic economic reward system directly linked to hours worked. In addition, the company provides 20% indirect compensation in the form of benefits to company employees. Benefits increase with seniority. Task Environment/Domain Plastco’s narrow domain is defined by the variety of plastic bags it makes. Key elements of the company’s task environment include its customers, competitors, suppliers and regulatory agencies it must adhere to, i.e. the Ministry of Labour and the Provincial Human Rights Commission. Competitors, Employees, Culture Values HR Function Competitors: Plastco must contend with an emerging competitor who can produce better quality bags for less. Plastco is losing market share to this competitor. Employees: the Company’s non-management employees are unionized and are divided into two departments; the bag-making and maintenance departments. The Maintenance Department staff ensures the bag-making machines are regularly serviced and kept in proper working order. It is the bag-making department where Plastco is experiencing poor employee relations coupled with low job satisfaction, motivation, morale and significant turnover of its female employees. This department consists of: †¢ 1 bag-making supervisor at the top,